Executive summary

1. The Rohingya crisis is a major humanitarian and human rights challenge, with over one million refugees facing statelessness and deprivation, while host communities struggle with socio-economic and environmental issues. Myanmar's leadership remains unaccountable for atrocities. This policy brief proposes holding Myanmar accountable through an international tribunal, investing in infrastructure for host nations, and promoting refugee economic empowerment to ensure justice, ease humanitarian strain, and support regional stability.
2. Overview

1. The Rohingya crisis is a humanitarian catastrophe rooted in decades of systemic persecution by Myanmar’s government. The crisis reached a peak in 2017 when widespread violence forced over one million Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh, where they remain in precarious conditions. Despite widespread condemnation and limited international sanctions, Myanmar’s leadership has largely escaped accountability, and the international response has been inadequate. Addressing the crisis requires systemic, actionable solutions that combine legal accountability, infrastructure investments, and economic empowerment to ensure resilience for both refugees and host communities.
2. Pointed Summary

• Myanmar’s leadership has faced minimal repercussions for well-documented atrocities against the Rohingya.
• Bangladesh, the primary host nation, struggles to manage the socio-economic and environmental impact of accommodating over a million refugees.
• A comprehensive policy approach is essential, combining accountability mechanisms, sustainable infrastructure support, and refugee empowerment programs to promote stability and justice.

Relevance

The Rohingya crisis is a profound violation of international law and a threat to regional stability, undermining the foundations of global legal frameworks established to protect vulnerable populations. Myanmar’s military actions contravene both the 1948 Genocide Convention and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, documents that form the cornerstone of international human rights law (Salainti, 2023; Shukri, 2021). The lack of accountability for these violations sets a dangerous precedent for impunity, signaling to other states that they might also ignore international obligations without consequence. This impunity not only discredits these foundational legal frameworks but also weakens the global consensus on human rights standards.

The crisis also places an immense burden on Bangladesh, which has been compelled to host over a million Rohingya refugees, despite limited resources. The influx of refugees has led to overcrowded camps, environmental degradation, and intensified competition for local resources, which in turn fuels local resentment and socio-economic strain (Kamruzzaman, 2024; Chowdhury et al., 2022). These pressures jeopardize the stability of Bangladesh’s host communities, increasing the risk of regional instability as frustration grows among the local population.

From a broader perspective, the Rohingya crisis poses a serious challenge to sustainable development goals, as resources in host communities are increasingly diverted to immediate humanitarian needs rather than long-term development projects. This diversion threatens to entrench cycles of poverty and slow economic progress, which are essential for regional peace and resilience. Effectively addressing this crisis is thus not only a moral imperative but a critical step in upholding international law, preserving regional stability, and promoting sustainable development. It is essential for the global community to act decisively to prevent further erosion of human rights norms and ensure accountability, reinforcing the integrity of international legal standards and fostering a more secure and just world.

History

The origins of the Rohingya crisis are deeply rooted in decades of systemic discrimination and exclusion in Myanmar. This marginalization became institutionalized with the 1982 Citizenship Law, which effectively stripped the Rohingya of their citizenship, rendering them stateless (Kamruzzaman, 2022). Deprived of legal recognition, the Rohingya were denied fundamental rights and protections. Over the years, this legal exclusion evolved into broader social, political, and economic marginalization. Rohingya communities were systematically barred from accessing education, healthcare, and other public services, while strict restrictions on their freedom of movement isolated them in poverty-stricken areas. These conditions left the Rohingya in a vulnerable and precarious state.

Tensions came to a head in August 2017, when Myanmar's military launched a brutal campaign against the Rohingya, marked by mass killings, sexual violence, and widespread destruction of villages. This military operation, widely recognized as ethnic cleansing and potentially genocide, forced over a million Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh. Despite international condemnation, Myanmar's military denied responsibility for the atrocities, continuing to marginalize and oppress the Rohingya population with impunity (Kamruzzaman, 2022). The international community’s inability to address this violence has prolonged the suffering of this already disenfranchised group.

International efforts to address the Rohingya crisis have been notably ineffective. The United States and the European Union imposed targeted sanctions on Myanmar’s military leaders in an attempt to pressure the government to stop the violence. However, these sanctions have largely been symbolic, failing to curb the military’s aggressive actions or bring about meaningful change (Shukri, 2021). The sanctions were further undermined by the lack of broader international cooperation, particularly from influential regional powers like China and India, which have continued to maintain close ties with Myanmar. This fragmentation has allowed Myanmar’s military leadership to resist pressure and remain in power.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has also faced challenges in responding to the crisis. Bound by the principle of non-interference in member states’ internal affairs, ASEAN has struggled to take a firm stance against Myanmar. While some member countries, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, have voiced concerns, others have remained silent, prioritizing diplomatic and economic ties over human rights (Shukri, 2021). Internal divisions and Myanmar’s refusal to cooperate with international mediation efforts have stymied ASEAN’s ability to play an effective role in resolving the crisis. This highlights the need for a more coordinated and enforceable international response to address such human rights violations comprehensively.

The Rohingya crisis is the product of decades of systemic discrimination and the failure of both domestic and international actors to hold Myanmar accountable for its actions. Despite some efforts, sanctions and diplomatic interventions have been largely insufficient, leaving the Rohingya without justice or protection. Moving forward, the international community must implement more robust legal frameworks and diplomatic strategies to ensure accountability for the perpetrators and provide long-term solutions for the Rohingya population. Without significant action, the cycle of violence and displacement will continue, deepening the humanitarian crisis.

Current Stances

International responses to the Rohingya crisis have been fragmented, characterized by limited action and inconsistent strategies. The United Nations (UN) has primarily focused on providing humanitarian aid to the displaced Rohingya, particularly through the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Food Programme (WFP), which have played vital roles in delivering critical resources such as food, shelter, and medical supplies to refugee camps in Bangladesh. However, the UN's capacity to address the root causes of the crisis has been hampered by geopolitical divisions, particularly within the UN Security Council. Efforts to hold Myanmar’s military accountable through international tribunals or broader sanctions have been repeatedly blocked by vetoes from key allies of Myanmar, including China and Russia, both permanent members of the Security Council (Lewis, 2019). These geopolitical dynamics have stymied attempts to impose more severe consequences on Myanmar's leadership, enabling continued impunity for the military's actions.

In addition to the UN's challenges, regional efforts led by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) have also proven ineffective. While ASEAN has publicly advocated for the safe, voluntary, and dignified repatriation of the Rohingya, progress has been stifled by internal divisions within the organization. Some ASEAN members, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, have expressed concern over the humanitarian aspects of the crisis, while others, particularly those with closer economic or political ties to Myanmar, have been reluctant to take a strong stance (Shukri, 2021). This lack of consensus has significantly weakened ASEAN's ability to pressure Myanmar into complying with international norms or facilitating a genuine repatriation process. Moreover, Myanmar’s outright defiance, coupled with its refusal to allow independent international investigations into the atrocities committed against the Rohingya, has rendered ASEAN’s efforts largely symbolic, lacking the enforcement mechanisms needed to drive real change.

Bangladesh, as the primary host country for over a million Rohingya refugees, continues to shoulder the immense socio-economic and environmental burdens of the crisis. Cox's Bazar, where the majority of the refugee camps are located, has become the world’s largest refugee settlement. The influx of refugees has strained Bangladesh’s resources, particularly in terms of healthcare, education, and infrastructure, as the government struggles to meet both the needs of the refugees and its own citizens in affected regions. Although international humanitarian aid has provided some relief, Bangladesh has received limited long-term support from the global community to address the deeper socio-economic and environmental challenges posed by such a large and protracted refugee situation (UNHCR, 2020). The lack of sustainable solutions for resettlement or repatriation has further exacerbated tensions within the host communities, where competition over limited resources is increasing.

The absence of cohesive and decisive international action has emboldened Myanmar’s military leadership. With limited consequences for its role in perpetrating the violence against the Rohingya, Myanmar has shown little interest in altering its policies or engaging in meaningful peace talks. This status quo is unlikely to change unless the international community takes more assertive steps to challenge Myanmar’s behavior and hold those responsible for the atrocities accountable. At the same time, Bangladesh requires comprehensive international support to ensure the wellbeing of the refugees and mitigate the negative impacts on host communities. Only through coordinated and sustained efforts can a solution to the crisis be achieved.

Tried Policy

Efforts to address the crisis have focused on immediate relief and punitive measures, with mixed results. Emergency aid provided by the UNHCR and NGOs has alleviated some humanitarian suffering but remains insufficient to meet the needs of overcrowded camps, where poor sanitation and limited resources persist (Lewis, 2019). Targeted sanctions on individual military leaders have been largely symbolic, failing to disrupt the financial networks sustaining Myanmar’s regime and exert real pressure on its leadership (Kamruzzaman, 2022). Diplomatic initiatives, such as ASEAN’s attempts to negotiate safe repatriation, have lacked enforceability, leaving refugees in limbo as Myanmar’s leadership remains uncommitted to meaningful change (Shukri, 2021). These past approaches highlight the limitations of isolated measures and the urgent need for a comprehensive policy framework.

Policy Problem

A. Stakeholders

The Rohingya crisis involves a range of key stakeholders, each with their own set of challenges. Rohingya refugees, who are stateless and denied basic rights, face severe exploitation and deprivation in overcrowded camps in Bangladesh, where they endure harsh living conditions and lack access to essential services like education and employment (Kamruzzaman, 2024). Bangladesh, hosting over one million refugees, struggles with economic strain, environmental degradation, and rising tensions between refugees and local communities as resources become increasingly scarce (Lewis, 2019). Myanmar’s leadership, despite widespread international condemnation, remains shielded by geopolitical dynamics and continues to evade accountability for its human rights abuses (Salainti, 2023).

B. Risks of Indifference

The international community's failure to act decisively in addressing the Rohingya crisis threatens to undermine global human rights norms and the credibility of international law (Chowdhury et al., 2022). Indifference to the plight of the refugees could lead to prolonged displacement and deprivation, destabilizing the region and fueling extremism (Shukri, 2021). Furthermore, the inaction of the global community may embolden oppressive regimes worldwide, allowing them to dismiss international norms with impunity, further eroding the foundation of global governance and accountability (Salainti, 2023).

C. Nonpartisan Reasoning

Addressing the Rohingya crisis is not merely a political issue but a fundamental human rights challenge that transcends political ideologies, as it aligns with core values of human dignity, security, and global stability (Shukri, 2021). The international community’s response should not be driven by national interests or political gain but by the universal principles that underpin global governance and human rights. The plight of the Rohingya, a marginalized and persecuted group, calls for a collective, coordinated effort that goes beyond political divides and reflects a shared responsibility to protect vulnerable populations. By prioritizing justice, sustainability, and refugee empowerment, the world can contribute to a more just and secure global order.

Such an approach would not only offer a path to resolving this particular crisis but would also affirm the broader commitment to human rights and the rule of law, setting a precedent for future crises. Failing to act on this basis risks eroding the credibility of international legal frameworks, undermining the very foundation of multilateral cooperation that sustains global peace. As such, the response to the Rohingya crisis must be grounded in the belief that the protection of human rights and the pursuit of justice are not just moral imperatives but essential for the long-term security and stability of the international community. Inaction in this context sends a dangerous message that global norms can be disregarded when political or economic interests are at stake, further emboldening regimes that disregard human rights and international law. Thus, addressing the crisis with urgency and integrity aligns with the ideals of justice and peace that are at the heart of the international system.

Policy Options

To effectively address the Rohingya crisis, a comprehensive approach is essential—one that integrates legal accountability, infrastructure investments, and refugee empowerment. The following recommendations provide a roadmap for actionable and sustainable change:

International Accountability: Prosecute Myanmar’s leadership through an international tribunal, such as the International Criminal Court (ICC), for crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. Holding those responsible accountable sends a clear message that such atrocities will not go unpunished. Furthermore, the United Nations should intensify diplomatic efforts to ensure Myanmar’s compliance with international law. This includes implementing sanctions targeting key military officials and business interests connected to Myanmar’s military junta, further disrupting the financial networks that sustain the regime (Kamruzzaman, 2022).

Infrastructure Investments: International stakeholders should prioritize infrastructure investments in Bangladesh, focusing on healthcare, education, and sanitation to alleviate the strain on host communities. Sustainable development initiatives should aim to integrate refugees into local economies, fostering mutual benefit and reducing tensions between refugees and their host populations. Investments should also address environmental challenges, such as through reforestation and waste management programs, improving living conditions for both refugees and local communities (Shukri, 2021).

Economic Empowerment for Refugees: Refugees should be economically empowered through vocational training, small business support, and access to financial services, enabling them to achieve self-sufficiency and reduce dependency on humanitarian aid. Host communities should be integrated into economic development programs, promoting inclusive growth that benefits both refugees and locals. Initiatives such as local employment opportunities and entrepreneurship can create economic synergies and alleviate competition for limited resources (Uddin, 2023). Additionally, establishing international trade zones near border regions could provide refugees with economic opportunities, further supporting integration and regional stability (Shukri, 2021).

A diversified funding model is crucial for the sustainable implementation of these policies. Public-private partnerships can engage NGOs and corporations to develop infrastructure and economic initiatives, blending resources and expertise for long-term impact. Impact bonds, which attract socially responsible investors, could fund refugee-related projects with a focus on measurable outcomes to ensure accountability. Additionally, pooled international funds managed through the UNHCR and World Bank could distribute financial burdens equitably, ensuring that developed nations share in the responsibility of supporting host countries and refugee populations (Kamruzzaman, 2022).

Public-private partnerships, in particular, are critical in supporting sustainable solutions for the Rohingya refugee crisis. Collaboration with NGOs and corporations can help drive development projects, ensuring that both refugee and host communities benefit from long-term investments (Shukri, 2021). Impact bonds represent an innovative approach, using socially responsible investors to fund essential infrastructure and services, with an emphasis on tracking progress and ensuring outcomes meet established targets (Lewis, 2019). Finally, pooling resources through UN funds allows for a fair distribution of financial support, ensuring that countries hosting large refugee populations are adequately supported (Kamruzzaman, 2022).

To secure U.S. support for addressing the Rohingya crisis, it must be framed as a national security issue. Prolonged refugee displacement can contribute to regional instability, potentially fueling extremism and threatening broader U.S. strategic interests. Highlighting the bipartisan values of human rights and global leadership can help build consensus in Congress. Emphasizing multilateral partnerships will also reduce the financial burden on the U.S., aligning with broader foreign policy goals and reinforcing the country’s commitment to stability and humanitarian principles.

By framing the crisis as a security concern, the narrative shifts to show that addressing the Rohingya’s needs is not only a humanitarian imperative but also crucial to preventing destabilization in Southeast Asia (Shukri, 2021). Additionally, supporting the Rohingya aligns with core bipartisan American values of human rights and compassion, enhancing the U.S.'s role as a global leader in promoting democracy and stability. This approach reinforces both ethical leadership and long-term security interests, solidifying America’s commitment to protecting vulnerable populations and promoting peace (Lewis, 2019).

Conclusions

This policy brief presents a multi-dimensional approach to addressing the Rohingya crisis, emphasizing justice, sustainable support, and economic empowerment. Establishing a UN tribunal to prosecute Myanmar’s leadership for human rights violations would uphold international law, set a global precedent against ethnic cleansing, and deter similar abuses in the future. By holding perpetrators accountable, this measure would not only address past crimes but also reinforce international norms, demonstrating a collective commitment to preventing such atrocities.

Investing in sustainable infrastructure within host nations, particularly Bangladesh, is crucial to improve living conditions for refugees, reduce environmental impact, and alleviate the economic burden on host communities. Sustainable infrastructure projects, such as clean energy, water purification, and waste management systems, would benefit both refugees and local residents, helping to reduce tensions and promoting resilience within the host communities.

Empowering refugees through targeted economic initiatives, including skills training and small-business grants, would promote self-reliance, stimulate local economies, and decrease dependency on humanitarian aid. By creating opportunities for refugees to contribute productively, these programs would foster integration and contribute to the economic vitality of the host regions.

Acknowledgment

The Institute for Youth in Policy wishes to acknowledge Gwen Singer, Mason Carlisle, Lilly Kurtz, Paul Kramer. and other contributors for developing and maintaining the Fellowship Program within the Institute.

References

1. Chowdhury, M., Williams, N., Thompson, K., and Ferdous, G. “The Rohingya Refugee Crisis in Bangladesh: An Analysis of the Involvement of Local Humanitarian Actors.” Third World Quarterly, vol. 43, no. 9, 2022, pp. 2188-2208. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2022.2085087.
2. Kamruzzaman, P. “A Critical Analysis of the Conference on Sustaining Support for the Rohingya Refugees.” Journal of Developing Societies, vol. 38, no. 2, 2022, pp. 198-223. https://doi.org/10.1177/0169796x221088339.
3. Kamruzzaman, P. “Navigating the Shift in Bangladeshi Host Community’s Perceptions Towards the Rohingya Refugees: A Declining Sympathy.” Frontiers in Sociology, vol. 9, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1346011.
4. Lewis, D. “Humanitarianism, Civil Society and the Rohingya Refugee Crisis in Bangladesh.” Third World Quarterly, vol. 40, no. 10, 2019, pp. 1884-1902. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2019.1652897.
5. Palakodety, S., KhudaBukhsh, A., and Carbonell, J. “Voice for the Voiceless: Active Sampling to Detect Comments Supporting the Rohingyas.” arXiv, 2019. https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1910.03206.
6. Salainti, Y. “Examining the Role of International Human Rights Tribunals in Promoting Accountability for Human Rights Violations.” The Easta Journal of Law and Human Rights, vol. 1, no. 3, 2023, pp. 108-115. https://doi.org/10.58812/eslhr.v1i03.87.
7. Shukri, S. “The Rohingya Refugee Crisis in Southeast Asia: ASEAN’s Role and Way Forward.” Journal of International Studies, vol. 17, 2021. https://doi.org/10.32890/jis2021.17.10.
8. Uddin, M. “Empowering Rohingya Refugees Through Islamic Microfinance: Exploring Prospects and Challenges in Bangladesh.” JISF, vol. 1, no. 1, 2023, pp. 13-23. https://doi.org/10.31436/jislamicsocfin.v1i1.11.

‍