Abstract 

Child marriage, defined as marriage before age 18, the recognized legal threshold in most countries, remains a widespread human rights violation. According to the United Nations, child marriage denies children the educational opportunities, harms long-term health, increases vulnerability to intimate partner and domestic violence, and deprives them of the formative experiences necessary for adulthood. The UN Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), ratified by nearly all UN member states, establishes international standards to combat child marriage and gender-based violence. This paper focuses on legal frameworks regarding child marriage and offers a comparative assessment of child marriage in the United States, Niger, and Brazil. These three countries vary in cultural and historical experiences, yet they all have similarly high incidence rates. The study will also examine the impact of child marriage at the individual and community levels from an economic, psychological, health, and socio-cultural perspective. It will reflect on how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected child marriage in these countries. Finally, this article proposes policy recommendations such as improving access to education, raising awareness and showing to girls there are other paths beyond their domestic responsibilities. 

Introduction

According to UNICEF, child marriage refers to any formal marriage or informal union between a child under 18 and an adult or another child (UNICEF, 2021). This harmful practice is deeply rooted in patriarchal views, political and epistemological ideologies. Unfortunately, child marriage has become a widespread global issue affecting millions of girls each year. A UNICEF report estimates that approximately 12 million girls are forced into marriage annually, which equates to about 28 girls getting married every minute. Even more concerning is that many of the children affected by child marriage are under 15.   

The UN Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), ratified by more than 200 member states, seeks to establish international standards to combat child marriage and violence against women (UNICEF, 2021); however, only 9% of countries have laws requiring couples to be at least 18 years. Child marriage severely harms children by depriving them of their education a positive and happy upbringing. It also exposes them to serious health risks, including sexually transmitted infections such as HIV, and significantly increases the likelihood of mental health issues. Child marriage disproportionately affects girls, while only 6% of boys are married before age 18, a troubling 21% of girls experience the same fate (Human Rights Watch, 2021).

For young girls forced into marriage, the consequences are often dire. They face a higher risk of domestic abuse and complications during childbirth (Walk Free, 2023). Many also become vulnerable to sex trafficking. Health-wise, child brides suffer from conditions such as cervical cancer, obstetric fistulas, and high maternal mortality rates, while also experiencing a lack of independence from their husbands. Despite advances in medical technology and increased globalization in the twenty-first century, child marriage persists due to deeply ingrained social and cultural norms. Although hundreds of countries have laws against this practice, enforcement remains weak (UNICEF, 2021). Child marriage is deeply embedded in culture and tradition, it is often difficult to eradicate effectively. In some communities, families continue to justify the practice by appealing to economic, psychological, health, or socio-cultural reasons. Parents may feel compelled to marry off their daughters when they cannot afford living expenses, while others argue that child marriage protects girls from pregnancies outside of matrimony.

The COVID-19 pandemic has further incentivized child marriages worldwide. As an international crisis that caused millions of deaths, the pandemic also placed intense financial strain on families as many workers lost their jobs. Its impact was particularly distressing for women, who bore the brunt of heightened economic vulnerability and increased exposure to gender-based risks. The pandemic had a particularly distressing impact on women,

Problem

Culture, education, and poverty exacerbate child marriage globally, regardless of a country's development status. Despite the misconception that child marriage is rare in developed nations, it remains common, with only a few US states enforcing legal bands that prohibit marriage under age 18, even with parental approval. In the United States, girls are sometimes forced into marriage as young as 15, occasionally as a means to secure legal immigration status. These practices also raise challenges for statutory rape laws, since in different circumstances, some of these unions would qualify as sex crimes, particularly given that the spouse is generally older than the bride. The lack of comprehensive data collection further compounds the problem and fosters public ignorance. There is a misconception that human rights violations occur only in developing nations or in conservative religious cultures, including some Muslim communities. In the United States, however, child marriage takes place mostly among kids aged 16 and 17 years old. While child marriage mostly affects late teens in the United States, it does not diminish the gravity of such contract. In some cases, children choose to enter into marriage by seeking emancipation from their parents, a controversial step, given that, at the same age, they are not legally permitted to buy alcohol or vote (Jiang, et al., 2023).

In Brazil, child marriages are more common in regions with limited access to healthcare, education, and other essential services (UNICEF ; Urquia, 2022). Families facing financial hardships may resort to child marriage to alleviate their economic burden, particularly in vulnerable populations with limited education, healthcare, and stable employment. Gender-based violence is another driver: in some cases, parents may marry their daughters off to protect them from state- and gang-controlled urban violence, seeking to provide a sense of security for their daughters. Religious beliefs, particularly in Evangelical, Protestant, and Catholic communities, also shape social attitudes toward sexual activity outside marriage, pregnancy, and abortion. These beliefs can influence families' decisions to turn to child marriage in order to adhere to conservative values (Girls Not Brides, 2023). Deeply ingrained gender norms and discriminatory practices further sustain child marriage in Brazil, perpetuating the idea that supporting early marriage for girls is acceptable while depriving them of their youth, education, and opportunities for personal growth. 

Child marriage in Niger is deeply rooted in cultural practices. Child brides in Niger often become additional wives in polygamous marriages, with 36% of married women living as co-wives (Ndiaye, 2021). The prevalence of early marriage in Niger is alarming, with girls typically getting married at the tender age of 15. Violence against women, including girls, is pervasive in Niger, and it stems from a culture of machismo and the violent socialization of boys and men (Niamey, 2021). Niger has one of the highest rates of child marriage globally, with a rate of 75% of girls married before the age of 18.  The country also ranks lowest on the Human Development Index, reflecting the challenging living conditions and limited opportunities for its citizens. The high rates of child marriage, which is a direct result of poor quality of living, likely exacerbate this phenomenon, as young girls are compelled into early and often unprotected marriages, leading to early pregnancies and potential health risks (Delong, et al., 2020). Child marriage in Niger is directly linked to a high incidence of gender-based violence. As young girls are forced into early marriages, they become more vulnerable to domestic violence, and their basic human rights are violated, further exacerbating the challenges girls and women face in the country.

Beyond its moral implications, child marriage significantly impacts a country's economy and its social development. Girls forced into early marriage are more likely to drop out of school, limiting their skills and earning potential and perpetuating a cycle of poverty (Moreno-Maldonado, et al. 2022). Early marriage, in most countries, is seen as a way to alleviate financial strain on the family. The practice of bride price during which the groom’s family provide financial value to the bride’s family is common in many regions, including India and Sub-Saharan Africa, where it is known as "Lobola" in the southern regions and "mahari" in the East (Shakya, Baker, et al. 2022). In resource-constrained countries, it can be financially burdensome for families to support children who are still young and unable to contribute economically. Child marriage also reduces national productivity, costing up to 1.7% of a country’s GDP annually due to covering the cost of assistance aid, health care, and lost labor. Alarmingly, these costs have increased as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic (UNICEF). 

The COVID-19 pandemic added additional pressure to an already challenging situation, further worsening the health and social life of children, particularly girls (Yukich, 2016). Women reported experiencing increased cases of rape, sexual assault, physical assault, early or forced marriage, denial of resources and opportunities, and psychological and emotional violence. With movement restrictions and lockdown measures in place, women in abusive situations faced even greater challenges in seeking help and support.

While some scholars use child marriage and forced marriage interchangeably, there is a growing effort in the literature to make a distinction between the two. According to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and Unchained At Last, a nonprofit organization with the mission to end child marriage in the United States, child marriage is defined as any marriage where at least one of the parties is under 18 years of age. Forced marriage is a marriage in which one and/or both parties have not personally expressed their full and free consent to the union. Nonetheless, before the COVID-19 Pandemic, scholars had found evidence of a decrease in child marriage globally, a statement that is no longer true today.

The number of domestic violence cases varies by location. A significant contributing factor to this alarming statistic is the considerable age gap between husbands and wives in Niger. Husbands are generally much older than their wives, perpetuating power imbalances and increasing vulnerability among young girls (Urquia Al, 2022).  Research on child and forced marriage supports the findings that as young girls are forced into early marriages, they become more vulnerable to domestic violence, and their fundamental human rights are violated, further exacerbating the challenges girls and women face in the country (OHCHR). Adding to it’s complexity, Human Rights Watch indicates that Niger has one of the countries with the greatest adolescent pregnancy rates. The country faces educational challenges, with only 42 percent of girls enrolled in basic education.  African Countries comprise 15 of the 20 countries with the greatest number of child marriages globally. (Human Rights Watch, 2021)

Literature Review

This practice perpetuates a cycle of poverty in the country, further hindering the nation's progress. Scholar Lucia Corno indicates that, parents who are exposed to adverse income shocks have a higher probability of marrying their daughters earlier. By marrying young, girls are denied educational opportunities and economic independence, strengthening Niger's status as one of the poorest countries in the world (Corno & Voena, 2023). Furthermore, the Berkeley Premier Undergraduate Economic Journal highlighted that the link between poverty and child marriage is evident. The findings indicate that girls in the 20 poorest countries of the world are more likely to be married before their 18th birthday than their counterparts in wealthier nations (The Berkeley Economic Review, 2018). Families resort to child marriage as a desperate measure to alleviate their financial burdens. This practice perpetuates the cycle of poverty and robs girls of reaching their full potential and empowerment. The prevalence of child marriage affects at least 1.7 percent of a country's Gross Domestic Product. Furthermore, Marcelo Louis Urquia and colleagues’ insight sheds light on an essential aspect of urban revival: delaying childbearing. Delaying childbirth is not just a matter of personal choice but a key driver for the revitalization of urban areas (Urquia, et al, 2022). Child marriage can have multiple effects on a country’s economy, including the global economy. Girls are likely to have complications during pregnancy, putting mother and child in danger, driving up health care costs. 

In addition, there may be some preventative measures that can be put in place to protect girls from child marriage or help them live a healthy life. Vilá's literature focuses on these preventative actions that can be used nationally and internationally to end this practice (Vilán, 2022). DeLong's Moreno-Maldonado and Santanmaria's publications shed light on the enduring consequences of early pregnancy. Having experienced childbirth at an early age, young mothers face significantly higher rates of intimate partner violence (Girls Not Brides, 2023). Experts, therefore, recommend that women delay their childbearing years, which will prevent a plethora of health concerns for the mother and the child, save the country unexpected expenses on welfare, and permit women to continue their studies and be independent. Dr Ndèye Amy Ndiaye's research digs into the pervasive nature of gender-based violence experienced by women in Niger. She also includes practice and policy avenues that have to be followed and enforced to end this prevailing practice. Additionally, Shakya's study offers valuable findings that align with existing literature and underscore the importance of sustained efforts in combating child marriage.  

Urquia implies that there are geographic and racial disparities in child marriage (Urquia, 2022; Cardoso, & Al 2022). Although, they have pleaded their commitment to the United Nations to eliminate child marriage as part of the Sustainable Development Goals by Brazil, much like Niger, is one of the top contributors to child marriages in the world (Urquia, 2022). Driven by gender inequality, Brazil follows similar patterns to Niger, with the difference that some of the unions are voluntary. Girls Not Brides is an international nonprofit organization with the mission to end child marriage globally; in certain situations, the family encourages the girl to get married if they starts to engage in pre-marital sex. In a region like Brazil, religion drives gender norms. Some girls see marriage as an influential factor seeking less parental control.

Examining the causes of child marriage in the United States Mariel Padilla reveals a shocking fact: nearly 300,000 children were legally married in the U. S. between 2000 and 2018. As of 2023, more than half of the states lack laws setting the minimum marriage age at 18, allowing the cycle of early unions to continue. Like in other countries, girls are the most affected by child marriage in the U. S. Many of these marriages would have been considered sex crimes under different circumstances, often involving minors and adult males. Mariel Padilla traces the origins of this issue back to British influence, highlighting historical factors that have contributed to this disturbing practice. The presence of child marriage has severe consequences. The United States Agency for International Development states that one of its immediate effects is girls dropping out of school, which leads to increased poverty. Sadly, the American public generally holds misconceptions about child marriage. David W. Lawson's study found that most Americans believe child marriage is illegal in the U. S. This misunderstanding is worsened by the term “Child,” which creates misconceptions about the seriousness and extent of child marriage. These false beliefs hinder global health efforts and reinforce harmful stereotypes. Contrary to popular belief, the issue of child marriage in the U. S. does not stem from a lack of knowledge but from biased perceptions. Most campaigns depict young girls being forced into marriage with much older men, which, while true in some cases, does not reflect the full complexity of the problem. Nicolas Syrett, analyzes the history and misconceptions surrounding child marriage in the U. S. (L. Syrett, Nicholas, 2018). While child marriage patterns in the U. S. are similar to those in developing countries, there are important differences, mainly regarding the ages at which child marriage occurs.  Anna Jiang, Americans have little awareness of the various forms child marriage can take. Furthermore, there is minimal policy discussion about child marriage within the country (UNICEF).

The COVID-19 pandemic has cast a long, ominous shadow over the fight against child marriage globally. Joshua Yukich, and Unchained At Last conclude that the pandemic might lead to a staggering increase in child marriages, potentially reaching between 7 million and 10 million cases globally (UNICEF). The pandemic influenced the likelihood of child marriage through the death of a parent, interruption of education, pregnancy risk, household income shocks, poverty, and reduced access to programs and services (Unchained At Last, 2023). These challenges are compounded, and the World Bank projects indicate a decline of 2.5 percent in gross domestic product as a result of these practices. Nonetheless, the United Nations Population Fund predicts an increase of 13 million child marriages globally from 2020 to 2030 and the Save the Children organization an upsurge of 2.5 million from 2020 to 2025. In addition, UNICEF's 2021 report concludes that 10 million more children will be married by the end of the decade. The pandemic has worsened the living situation for millions of girls worldwide. This factor negatively alters the Sustainable Development Goals to end child marriage by 2030 (UNICEF).  

Policy Analysis in the United States, Niger, and Brazil 

United States 

As of 2018, child marriage was legal in all 50 territories in the United States. According to recent data from Unchained at Last, a non-profit organization dedicated to ending child marriage in the United States, as of 2023, child marriage remains legal in more than half of the country (Unchained at Last, 2023).  Nearly 300,000 children as young as 10 were married in the U.S. between 2000 and 2018 – mostly girls wed to adult men. Delaware and New Jersey were the first states to end this violation with a specific age requirement of 18 years for marriage. In many states with marriage restrictions, individuals can get married through loopholes with parental consent, Judicial approval, or emancipation (Padilla, 2023, Mariel,2023). Child marriage in the United States is more prevalent in the South; West Virginia had the nation's highest rate of child marriages in 2014, with five-year averages of 7.1 marriages for every 1,000 children between 15 and 17. In 2015, an article in the New York Times by Reiss Fraidy, the CEO of Unchained At Last, titled “American-Child Marriage Problem,” and later in 2022, an article in the Washington Post titled “For the Sake of a Visa, I was Forced into Marriage at Age 15”, forced Americans to think about the dreadful truth that child marriage happens in the country, a first-world State (Taylor, Sasha K. 2022 Reiss, Fraidy). About 200,000 children were married in the United States from 2000 to 2015. Immigration laws do not dictate the minimum age necessary for someone to petition for a foreign spouse or fiancé so that the individual can benefit from a spouse visa (Immigrant Visa for a Spouse of a U.S. Citizen).  Between 2007 to 2017, the US approved around 9,000 petitions regarding minors, mostly girls, married to adult males. Most states do not track Child Marriage data or make it available to the public, creating a misperception in the country (Unchained at Last, 2023). The hope that the number of child marriages will reach zero is not likely, especially without any federal regulation on the problem. All states should remove all loopholes that allow child marriage in the country.

The series “Shameless,” written by John Wells, Paul Abbott, Davey Holmes, and Sheila Callaghan, depicts relevant examples of child marriage in the United States and the conditions under which they happen. The plot set in  Chicago, Illinois, highlighting the story of Ethel, a young girl aged 13, mother of her firstborn, who was in a cult and married to a man over the age of 65 named Clyde. Estefania's arranged marriage to Jimmy is another example of child marriage in the United States, showcased in the show. Estefania was still a teenager when her father, Marco, forced her to marry Jimmy to gain US citizenship. In addition, Debbie, another teenage character in the show, drops out of high school in an attempt to marry Neil an older man in hope of of maintaining guardianship of her child. The conditions under which child marriage happens in the United States can differ from other countries; however, the results still remain the same. The series Shameless shows different scenarios of child marriage happening in the United States very common to its population, yet extremely misconstrued. In the United States, the practice of child marriage is subtle compared to Niger or Brazil, where scholars can easily point to the social and economic reasons for the act. This can also make it more dangerous, as it is happening right under our eyes. 

As children get married in the United States, they often drop out of school,  particularly girls, and must start caring for their families. Debbie’s story from Shameless depicts those points. Debbie has little to no skill and is likely to be confined to potentially lower-earning jobs for her entire life. With limited education, they perpetuate the cycle of poverty in the United States, not contributing to the national economy. This burdens the states, as this group of individuals would require more help from the state, as they receive public assistance, including health.  The offspring are born in poor households of young parents who have faced severe economic challenges, as they do not have any education and are likely to follow the same pattern as their parents.  In cases where the man is the sole income earner in the household, the wife is at higher risk of experiencing gender-based violence by her husband. Gains in annual welfare from lower population growth could reach more than $500 billion annually if there were no child marriages (Moreno-Maldonado, Al, 2022). If women could delay childbearing, it could help the economies of the countries. Studies have also found that women who married later would have earned 9 percent higher incomes than if they had married as teenagers. They could stay in school and perform higher levels of work while receiving higher incomes. 

In the United States, delaying childbearing is crucial for reviving urban areas, which also helps the country’s economy. Women can work longer hours and worry less about commuting time. A similar result will appear if children are kept in school rather than getting married; girls can achieve their dreams and reach higher job positions. As women delay motherhood, they can invest in their education, which drives economic productivity, and more women can contribute to the country’s innovation.  As women reach higher-paying jobs, they will gain economic independence, allowing them to cover healthcare, including prenatal care, if they decide to have a child. This will enable women and their children to achieve better physical and mental health, and reduce the economic burden on the state to cover health expenses. The mortality rate will decrease exponentially, saving the lives of both mother and child. In contrast to the poverty cycle of child marriage, families can gain economic mobility as they are no longer struggling to make ends meet. 

The COVID-19 pandemic left the United States in a financial crisis worse than the great depression, as funds were used to alleviate the population's financial burden. Impoverished areas often lack sufficient resources to support their populations or provide opportunities for women to gain financial and personal independence (UNICEF).

Niger

Gender inequality further perpetuates the cycle of poverty and limits the prospects for girls. Niger experiences assaults on educational property which create a hostile environment for young girls' education. Demographic and health surveys showed that only around 14% of women in Niger were literate, compared to 42% of men. Child marriage severely harms children, depriving them of education and a proper childhood. Poverty, lack of education, gender inequality, and the perceived need to protect girls' reputations are reasons for child marriage in the country (Ndiaye & Amy, 2021). The issue of teen pregnancies is prevalent in Niger, making it the country with the highest number of such cases, according to data investigated by Human Rights Watch and UNICEF including gender disparities in education, where girls are less likely to receive basic education compared to boys (UNICEF, 2023).

Niger is one of the lowest-ranked countries on the Human Development Index, based on its poor living qualities and lack of opportunities for its population. Rated one of the highest on Human Rights Watch and UNICEF, Niger has limited access to resources, such as access to education for boys and girls alike.  In Niger, the significant disparity in learning contributed to a substantial literacy gap between gender, affecting primarily girls.  The disadvantaged environmental cycle led to increased poverty among the population. Most of the population does not have the education or skills necessary for a high-paying job (Pourtaheri et Al , 2023). Niger culture of child marriage is rooted in centuries of practices justified by either religious understanding or financial inequality. 

One significant challenge in Niger is the lack of adequate legal structures, laws, and enforcement mechanisms to protect the rights of women and girls. The absence of robust legislation makes it difficult to prevent child marriages and protect the rights of young girls who are forced into such unions (Delong, et al , 2020).The National Observatory for the Promotion of Gender and the implementation of Decree No. 2019-369 PRN/MPF/PE in 2019 have been established to tackle child marriage and protect the rights of girls gender (Calimoutou, Emelyne, 2022).  However, the newly added program faces multiple challenges to achieve its goal, one of which is the lack of reporting of the practice. The pandemic had a particularly distressing impact on women in Niger, who were forced to stay at home and endure abuse with limited access to resources and support systems.

 The broader context of child marriage in sub-Saharan Africa is concerning, with 40 percent of girls being married off before the age of 18. Additionally, 15 out of the 20 countries with the highest prevalence of child marriages are located in Africa, further highlighting the severity of the issue in the region. Maradi, a region within Niger, bears the brunt of child marriage, with a distressing 89 percent of girls affected by this harmful practice ( Human Rights Watch, 2021). Moreover, attacks on schools in certain regions like Tillabéri and Tahoua, starting in 2017, have contributed to over 110 schools closing their doors. These assaults on education create a hostile environment for young girls, limiting their access to learning and contributing to the cycle of disadvantage. UNICEF data on child marriage in Niger reveals that a shocking 78% of Nigerien girls under 18 get married during their adolescent years and become pregnant in the same year. This contributes to a significant burden on the country's infant and maternal health, leading to high rates of mortality ( Yukich, Joshua et Al, 2021). 

The impact of COVID-19 had severe implications for gender-based violence in Niamey, Niger. Women reported a significant number of cases, including rape, sexual assault, physical assault, early or forced marriage, denial of resources and opportunities, as well as psychological and emotional violence. With movement restrictions and lockdown measures in place, women in abusive situations faced significant challenges in seeking help and support.  As a result, child marriage and gender-based violence rates increased, exacerbating the vulnerabilities faced by girls and women in the country (Rahiem, 2021 ). Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, schools were closed, economic stress, disruptions to services, pregnancy and death of parents due to the pandemic are putting the most vulnerable girls at greater risk of child marriage. While the percentage of child marriages worldwide has decreased 15%, this number will regain it’s peak by the stress of the pandemic. As UNICEF Executive Director Henrietta Fore said during the International Woman day in 2020 "International Women's Day is a key moment for us to remember what these girls have to lose if we don't act urgently – their education, their health, and their future" (UNICEF, 2020).

The harmful culture of child marriage re-enforce girls low self-esteem and disempowers them as they grow up, making them vulnerable to gender-based violence. One in every three partnered women in Niger has been a victim of sexual or physical violence by an intimate male partner, with prevalence rates soaring up to 70% in some regions. Niger has the highest rate of HIV positive in the world (Shakya, Baker, et al, 2022). In the context of child marriage, husbands in Niger often refuse and prohibit their wives from using family planning methods, as they prefer to have multiple children. Children, especially daughters, can be viewed as a potential source of income for their parents. Parents might arrange marriages for their daughters to receive considerable monetary funds from prospective husbands. In this scenario, cultural norms and the age difference between husbands and young brides reinforce a sense of power dynamics, leading to fear and submission among the girls (Yukich, Joshua et Al, 2021).

Conservative Islamic countries like Niger, social norms often discourage divorce, leading to increased gender-based violence against women. Child brides, who are forced into early marriages, often find themselves trapped in abusive relationships, unable to escape due to societal pressure and family expectations. Experiencing intimate partner violence at a young age can have a profound impact on girls. They may develop an accepting attitude toward such abuse and feel confined in their relationships, believing they have no other option but to endure mistreatment. The fear of bringing shame to their families by leaving their marriages further exacerbates their predicament. Children, especially girls growing up in households where violence is normalized, tend to mimic submissive behaviors as they internalize the dynamics they witness. A daughter who observes such interactions as a child is likely to interpret this behavior as acceptable and normal psychologically. As a result, she may expect to face similar treatment when she herself gets married at a young age, perpetuating the cycle of abuse.

In Niger, child marriage is often justified based on the belief that it protects children from social stigmas related to pregnancy and sexual intercourse before marriage. Six terms related to child marriage in developing countries have been identified: human insecurity and conflict, legal issues, family values and circumstances, religious beliefs, individual circumstances, beliefs, and knowledge, and social norms. There is a strong relationship between early marriage and a country's poor physical and socioeconomic status. When a child marries, the family may receive a dowry or bride price from the groom's family. However, while this may provide temporary economic relief for the family, the long-term consequences of early marriage can be detrimental (Pourtaheri, Asma, 2023). Existing policies are often not effectively enforced, leaving women and girls vulnerable to various forms of abuse and discrimination. In terms of legal provisions related to child marriage, the age of adulthood in Niger can be artificially reached through emancipation, either by marriage or court decision at the request of the parents, provided the minor has reached the age of 15. This provision potentially perpetuates the practice of child marriage, as girls can be considered independent from their parents after their first marriage.  

Niger took a significant step toward protecting children's education. In 2015, Niger authorized the safe school declaration in June, a step to protect children and keep them in schools which can help reduce child marriage in the region (Human Right Watch, 2021). Education plays a vital role in empowering girls and breaking the cycle of early marriage. The Niger Red Cross Society (NRCS) is popular and admired nationwide, working tirelessly to end child marriage in the country. Education is one of the most effective method to end child marriage. Certain campaigns to end child marriage in Niger include cash supplements. By addressing financial barriers to education, these initiatives encourage families to prioritize their children's education over early marriage, thereby reducing child marriage rates.  Addressing poverty in Niger is another method that can be used to eradicate child brides. Families will no longer have to turn to marital ceremonies as an income source for their families ( Silverman, Jay G 2023).

 While Niger has an extensive number of child marriages, the country has a plethora of international and national laws forbidding the practice. Niger, in agreement with UN policies on Human Rights, has acknowledged the negative effects of the practice. The government, in collaboration with NGOs working to end this practice, takes into account the country's social context to create policies and programs that alleviate this issue. Although Niger has many great programs to end child marriage, few policies have been effectively enforced, and the implementation of those policies is not always realistic. In a country poor in resources, there is not enough manpower to ensure that those policies are being respected by the population. The lack of modern infrastructure makes it hard for the country to maintain accurate data surveillance over the practice. While programs such as the cash back supplements help keep girls in the house longer, these policies do not attack the root cause of the issue, making sure families raising and women know that they can have a successful future without marriage as a child. It is not enough to say that the practice is founded upon when it’s been a reality for generations; the government needs to support its claim with examples. 

Brazil

Child marriage is a concerning issue in Brazil, with varying prevalence rates across its diverse regions. Brazil ranks fourth globally and has the highest number of child marriages worldwide. This harmful practice predominantly afflicts rural and economically disadvantaged areas, highlighting the deep-rooted social challenges. Brazil, in alignment with the United Nations, has pledged to eradicate child marriage by 2030 as part of the Sustainable Development Goals. In 2018, they co-sponsored the 2018 UN General Assembly resolution on child marriage, early, and forced marriage. However, achieving this goal requires concerted efforts to address the underlying factors contributing to child marriage in the country. Globally, approximately 12 million girls are married before the age of 18, according to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) report from October 2021, underscoring the urgency of the issue (UNICEF). In 2016, the Follow-up Mechanism to the Belém do Pará Convention (MESECVI) recommended that State Parties, including Brazil, review and reform laws and practices to increase the minimum age for marriage to 18 years for both women and men.  In March 2019, Brazil took a significant step by modifying its Civil Code, prohibiting anyone from marrying before the age of 16 (Brazil bans child marriage for those under 16, 2019).

Child marriages are more common in certain parts of Brazil regions with limited access to healthcare, education, and other essential services. Northern Brazil, in particular, faces higher rates of child marriage influenced by factors like poverty, the absence of comprehensive human rights protection, including education and gender equality, and the impact of major infrastructure projects attracting male migrants—all contributing to the persistence of child marriage. In addition, a large age gap offers girls greater financial security, outdated laws and lack of legal enforcement, a paucity of data, and the perceived need to protect girls' reputations continue to perpetuate this harmful practice in the country.  Rigid social and cultural norms, a machismo culture, and traditional perceptions of women as less than men reinforce the practice. The government's reluctance to get involved in what is considered private matters reinforces child marriage. Women in Brazil face the highest incidence of femicide – the killing of a woman because of her gender (Vogelstein, Rachel, Meighan Stone, 2021). In the face of financial hardship, families, especially in vulnerable areas, may turn to child marriage as a desperate means to alleviate their burdens, adding to the complex web of factors contributing to this distressing phenomenon.

Pregnancy plays a significant role in early child marriage in Brazil, driven by the coercion of parents or grandparents aiming to safeguard adolescent reputations and, in some distressing instances, to shield girls from abusers. Premarital pregnancy in Brazil is stigmatized as "ser mais nada" (becoming nothing). In other cases, girls are forced into marriage to prevent an abuser from facing legal consequences, which intensifies the pressure on young girls to enter early marriages. Teen pregnancy in Brazil, for girls between 15 and 19 years old, reached 49% in 2020, further reinforcing this aspect. In recent decades, approximately 1 out of 11 Brazilian births has been to a woman under 18 years of age. Gender-based violence is another driver of child marriage in Brazil. In some cases, parents may marry their daughters off to protect them from state- and gang-controlled urban violence, seeking to provide a sense of security for their daughters through early marriage (Urquia, Luis, et al, 2022). Religious beliefs, particularly in Evangelical, Protestant, and Catholic communities, also play a role in shaping social norms and attitudes toward sexual activities outside of marriage, pregnancy, and abortion. These religious beliefs can influence families' decisions to opt for child marriage to adhere to conservative values. Deeply ingrained gender norms and discriminatory practices contribute to the continuation of child marriage in Brazil. These norms perpetuate the idea that supporting early marriage for girls is acceptable while depriving them of their youth, education, and opportunities for personal growth (Wiedemann, Denise, 2021).

Brazil is actively working on creating policies to end child marriage, both at the national and international levels. However, without reliable data and reporting, it becomes more difficult for the government to implement effective laws and policies to address child marriage comprehensively.  To stop the practice of child marriage, the Brazilian government implemented many international and national policies, including raising awareness about the issue. Brazil launched a campaign in 2020 and published a book titled "Facing Online Violence Against Adolescents in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic." This initiative aimed to shed light on the issue and foster public understanding and support. Furthermore, in 2019, the government introduced Article 8(a) to Law n. 13,798, establishing a National Week of Teenage Pregnancy Prevention. This highlights the interconnectedness of child marriage and teenage pregnancy and emphasizes the importance of prevention efforts.  Without reliable data and reporting, it becomes more difficult for the government to implement effective laws and policies to address child marriage comprehensively. (United Nations, 2021)

When girls finish their education and enter the workforce, they reduce the percentage of experiencing gender-based violence as they are financially stable to support themselves.  The country ought to confront its economic disparity by creating solutions to child marriage in Brazil.  In March 2019, Brazil modified its Civil Code, prohibiting anyone from marrying <16 years. In 2017, the government launched a national strategy to combat child marriage (Urquia, Marcelo L., & Rosangela, 2022). In 2013 was the birth of a political activism known as the “Women's Spring”, ignited by Juliana de Faria, a journalist in São Paulo. The Women's Spring was a campaign against politicians and policies that undermined women’s rights, serving as a stepping stone to the development of the hashtag # MeToo movement in Brazil. Although the country is working to create laws to protect women in the country, the cultural acceptance of discrimination against women persists, and they often are blamed for the violence and harassment they face. Juniana uses the internet as her platform to advocate for women's rights by generating hashtags #ChegadeFiuFiu or “NoMore Catcalling,” #MeuPrimeiroAssedio or “My First Harassment,” #MeuAmigoSecreto or “My Anonymous Friend,” #MeuQueridoProfessor “My Dear Teacher.” Juliana opened a space for women to express themselves without judgment.

The policy framework used in Brazil to end child marriage lacks enforcement in the region to be a successful policy. During the policy-making process, not enough actors, such as think tanks, non-profit organizations, and interest groups, participate in the creation of policies. These issues of child marriage do not always get enough attention to make it to the policy agenda.  The lack of resources is another problem that affects the effectiveness of the policies. There is no accurate reporting of the number of child marriages in Brazil; it takes years for scholars to gather data, and there is also not enough workforce to reach deserted areas, ensuring the policies set by the government are not being violated. Brazil, following international law, is working tirelessly to protect vulnerable families, creating a society where every child can grow up in a safe and nurturing environment and have equal opportunities for women. Therefore, politicians creating policies must consider the implementation aspect to ensure success. The COVID-19 Pandemic has further exacerbated the concern of child marriage, by globally increasing the number of children who will be vulnerable to the harmful impact of the practice.

Policy Recommendations 

The intricate complexity of child marriage makes it impossible to develop a single solution or policy that will solve this cumbersome issue. There is no universal campaign to end child marriage, as the causes of the practice are usually specific to a region. There are however, universal steps that can be taken in policy creation to solve the issue. The government still needs to develop policies and laws that will mitigate the problem as much as possible. The different actors involved in the policy process to end child marriage should have a holistic approach to the formulation of the policies. All nation-states are encouraged to have more actors involved in the policy process to end child marriage. While many countries have amazing policies already in place to end child marriage in their respective regions, the implementations of those policies and their enforcement are not always a success. As child marriage is not widely known, there should be greater awareness globally regarding this topic. This can be accomplished through different platforms, including the media and mainstream TV. For instance, “ Sound of Freedom,” written by Alejandro Gómez Monteverde and Rod Barr, is a well-known movie that sheds light on human trafficking in the United States.  Similar initiatives can be done concerning child marriage. The governments of the United States, Niger, and Brazil can offer grants to film producers who are willing to help raise awareness about this practice through documentaries or other visual media outlets. 

The United States and other countries are taking measures to end child marriage. In recent decades, a few states have adopted a minimum age for marriage. In 2019, bill H.R.1606 - End Forced Child Marriages Act failed to pass Congress, which would have set a minimum age of 18 years on a federal level in the United States. Internationally, the US has taken several steps to stop this practice. The Preventing Child Marriage Act (S. 414), passed in 2018, prohibits the US from giving aid to countries with high rates of child marriage (Women's Congressional Policy Institute ). Other laws include The International Megan's Law (IML) in 2016, requiring the United States to share information with foreign countries when a sex offender has traveled to their territories (Shouse, Neil, 2023). The goal of this law is to make it harder for the individuals to engage in child marriage practices. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), another initiative working against child marriage, is creating an international program targeting the issue at its roots. The agency promotes education and provides economic aid to countries with less financial capability. Other organizations and programs the United States is collaborating with may include the CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, UNICEF, Girls Not Brides organizations, and the UNFPA agency.

 In the United States, establishing a federal minimum age can help eliminate child marriage, according to Anna and Jennifer (Jiang & Al, 2023). Child Marriage in the United States is affected by different factors, including poverty and education. Parents who lack the economic means to support their children will be unable to afford a good education for their kids, thereby reinforcing the practice. While families in developing countries see child marriage as a means to end their financial struggles, in the United States, Child Marriage is mostly a solution to escape legal consequences. While child marriage remains comparatively low in the United States compared to other countries, it is still higher in places with higher levels of poverty. In addition, conservative families whose children become pregnant are encouraged to marry, as sexual activities outside of marriage or abortion are not accepted. In the United States, it is recommended to remove legal loopholes allowing child marriage and enforce a federal and state law requiring married couples to be 18 years old. More awareness is needed in the United States, as everyday people are unaware of this issue. As any new teenage romance may end in marriage, this should be a discussion in every household. 

Despite these challenges, Niger and Brazil have taken several initiatives to end child marriage. The governments of Niger and Brazil have shown some commitment to promoting gender equality and human rights. Brazil, for instance, bans marriage for girls under the age of 16 years old. Niger in turn has reiterated their dedication to the human rights principles set forth in the Declaration of Human Rights and have made amendments to the Penal Code to address specific issues. At the national level, Niger reviewed its gender policy in 2017, indicating efforts to address gender-related concerns. Initiatives such as the National Observatory for the Promotion of Gender and the implementation of Decree No. 2019-369 PRN/MPF/PE in 2019 to protect children from early marriage have been established to tackle child marriage and protect the rights of girls (Calimoutou, Emelyne 2022). Moreover, the introduction of gender quotas in 2002 has shown some positive impact, allowing increased political participation for women in Niger. The proportion of women's participation in parliament has grown to 25.9% as of February 2021, indicating progress in this area. While the effectiveness of gender quotas remains a subject of debate among scholars, these efforts demonstrate that Niger is taking steps in the right direction to protect the rights of women and girls in the country. However, there is still a long way to go to achieve comprehensive gender equality and effectively combat child marriage and gender-based violence. Continuous commitment, enforcement, and implementation of policies and initiatives are crucial to ensuring the well-being and empowerment of women and girls in Niger. 

Education is one of the most effective methods to combat child marriage. By providing access to education, especially for girls, they can be equipped with knowledge, skills, and confidence to make informed decisions about their lives, including delaying marriage and pursuing their aspirations (Bocanegra, Alberto ).  It may be advisable for Niger and Brazil to participate in training and education campaigns for the population, especially in remote locations, to inform everyone, particularly girls, about the various possible futures they can have when they grow up.  In Niger and Brazil more women should be part of the decision-making process, which not only improves organizational structures, it also provides a concrete example for young girls that different futures are possible. Having different institutions in the conversation to end child marriage can be helpful to continue training and educating people on the best practices they can take to end child marriage, one child at a time. The international law recommendations set by the United Nations to end child marriage should be followed by the Government of Niger and adapted by local governments to suit the region's specific political context. In addition, Niger should promote legal assistance for women victims of gender-based violence looking to be free of their abuser. The Nigerian government, working with private businesses, can establish a new and easily reportable method for women and girls who are victims of gender based violence and or victims of child marriage. The country needs modern infrastructure that can offer resources to people at risk of being victims of child marriage. The girl effect, which aims to empower girls to break the cycle of gender poverty, is another  effective methods that can be used in Brazil to ensure that girls stay in school long enough to be financially independent before becoming mothers. This route ensures girls' safety in the country and benefits the national GDP, thereby decreasing poverty and reducing unnecessary healthcare costs to the government. 

Implementation Strategy

Despite general misconceptions, child marriage remains a common practice in developed countries such as the United States, as well as in developing countries like Brazil and Niger. The practice of child marriage raises questions about the status of rape in many countries, since many girls are married after becoming pregnant, mostly in developed nations. Unfortunately, the lack of data on this issue makes it difficult to draw concrete conclusions about child marriage. In the 21st century, although the consequences of child marriage are widely acknowledged, its persistence is often due to the inability to enforce laws against it and the presence of loopholes within these laws. The COVID-19 pandemic has put additional pressure on families which may lead to child marriage. While research has not yet clearly defined the pandemic’s impact on this issue, it is reasonable to infer that the increased financial stress caused by the pandemic has likely led more families to arrange marriages for their children. Moreover, as families stayed home, women were at greater risk of domestic abuse, which often goes unreported due to circumstances. It is a child's right to complete their education, which can help reduce child marriage and enable women to become financially independent.

Generally, countries agree to end child marriage internationally, such as the ratification of the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), by nearly all UN member states, and at the national level of government; however, the local communities that are mostly affected lack representation. Therefore, it would be advisable to implement policies affecting child marriage using a bottom-up approach, starting at the local level and progressing to the federal level. Local governments usually have a better understanding of the communities they serve compared to state governments. Seeing women at the local level involved in decision-making will reinforce girls' belief in the value of their education and change the narrative that they can dream of a future where they have a career beyond their domestic responsibilities. Teaching girls by showing rather than telling opens the door to new possibilities they might not have otherwise experienced. Community engagement is a vital part of ending this practice; an action that is not accepted in the community will be less likely to happen. The different actors involved in the policy process to end child marriage need to ensure that enforcement practice is included in the language of the text. A multisectoral approach involves all institutions coordinating with one another to address the issue at its root cause. 

As countries have limited data on this topic, analyzing the effectiveness of a policy can be a complex task. Innovative tracking and reporting systems would be crucial in implementing the policy strategy. In developed countries with enough resources and where most people own a smartphone, reporting should be possible by tapping with a finger using a government application. In developing countries, radio stations are a popular media outlet that can be effectively leveraged for this task, often specific to a region. The local community can ensure the policies being created are relevant to their needs and can provide critical analysis of their implementation. They will be able to identify risks, local relevance and areas of improvement to facilitate their implementation.