Introduction

In Los Angeles (LA), California (CA), nearly 77.70% of all residential land is zoned for single-family homes (Median 5-6). Zoning laws, as defined by Cornell Law School, are a legislative act of dividing a jurisdiction’s land into sections and regulating different land uses of the different sections, dictating what type of developments are allowed to be constructed where (Cornell Law School LII). This defines everything from Los Angeles’s housing density to regional carbon footprints affecting socioeconomic opportunities and climate for Angelenos due to unsustainable mass urban sprawl. Urban sprawl is the uncontrolled, rapid expansion of the geographic extent of cities and towns, characterized by low-density residential housing, creating car-dependent citizens and resources stretched out to further places, marginalizing opportunities (Scenic America).

In today’s society of unaffordable housing, mass crises of urban sprawl, and the daily lives of our constituents being affected from food deserts to heat islands, rigid zoning laws in Los Angeles have undermined the livelihoods of our constituents and the city’s environmental sustainability, worsening economic inequality and entrenched patterns of segregation. Los Angeles is often regarded as the pioneer of the modern zoning laws, originally designed to promote order and safety for our constituents, but through the 21st century, zoning regulations have come under scrutiny for perpetuating unsustainable urban development patterns and social inequality (Vankin). 

As two-thirds, or 68% of the world’s population is projected to live in urban centers, by 2050, in search of better opportunities, urban centers like Los Angeles must re-evaluate zoning regulations as they face intensifying climate crises, housing shortages, and widening wealth gaps (United Nations). Skyrocketing rent prices, long commutes, and worsening air quality; zoning regulations continue to shape structural barriers that many low-income and minority communities in Los Angeles face, where the question we are faced with today needs to be dealt with a sense of urgency: “What reforms to Los Angeles zoning laws would most enhance its sustainability and socioeconomic equity?” 

Although defenders of strict zoning laws claim that these laws protect neighborhood characters and property values, they only enforce Nimbiastic culture, a cultural attitude of opposing new developments or changes in one’s neighborhood even if it is beneficial for the larger community and environment, and broader environmental and economic issues that call for urgent reform (Not In My Backyard). In this paper, the origins of restrictive zoning laws in areas such as Los Angeles will be examined, analyzing the environmental and equitable consequences, then looking into the resistance, needed form, and the future of zoning. 

The Origins of Restrictive Zoning Laws in Los Angeles

The origins of Los Angeles’s zoning ordinances showcase a history of racial exclusion, economic stratification, and environmental implications. Enacting the nation’s first modern municipal code in 1908, Los Angeles’s zoning ordinances separated industrial activities from residential areas to protect public health and property values (Rosenberg). However, these early regulations, characterized as legalized segregation, saw minority immigrant businesses like Asian Americans and black minorities targeted in order to maintain the neighborhood character of white households (Shertzer et. al. 3).  

By 1921, the city expanded its zoning framework, splitting its jurisdictions between single-family homes, commercial spaces, and industrial activities, which not only solidified the city’s urban development but also institutionalized socioeconomic divisions. (Hanley). This codification of land emphasized single-family housing and living, which became a tool to preserve neighborhood homogeneity and limited access to affordable housing options for marginalized communities. 

The post-World War II era saw a significant expansion of single-family zoning ordinances, reinforcing suburban sprawl and car dependency. By 1960, Los Angeles had the capacity to house approximately 10 million people (Stephens). However, through downsizing measures and a reduction of neighborhood densification, the capacity was reduced to about 4.5 million by 1990, remaining at this point today (Monkkonen). Desen Lin and Susan Wachter, researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, saw that a drastic decrease in housing capacity contributed to housing shortages and increased living costs, displacing millions of Los Angelenos to undesirable neighborhoods with higher crime rates and a lower quality of education (Lin and Wachter 24-25). 

Moreover, mass prioritization on single-family housing has encouraged urban sprawl, perpetuating environmental challenges through low-density development promotions, increasing the reliance on private automobile use, and contributing to higher greenhouse gas emissions. Researchers Myeonghwan Na and Chamna Yoon at Seoul University, with the American Economic Association, found that a single percentage point increase in the development of single-family housing units in an urban area led to a 1.5% increase in on-road carbon dioxide emissions per capita (Na 3). Na and Yoon’s findings showcase the effects that suburbanization has on our environment, increasing the city’s carbon footprint, which has exacerbated climate-related issues, resulting in more severe natural disasters like wildfires, as studied by Matthew J. Jones and others, researchers at the University of East Anglia (Jones et. al). The carbon footprint of Los Angeles will only continue to increase without zoning reforms to tackle unchecked urban sprawl, leading to more devastating natural disasters like the recent Palisades and Hurst fires in 2025.

Zoning and Urban Sustainability – The Link Between Environmental Urban Design and Social Inequity

Additionally, the urban design of Los Angeles disproportionately affects low-income and minority communities. Historically, the expansion of single-family zoning laws has encouraged low-density developments. Sprawling development patterns, as such, have led to higher per capita emissions and greater exposure to air pollutants, particularly in communities situated near major roadways and industrial zones (South Coast AQMD 2-3). The impacts of increasing exposure to air pollutants are twofold: contributing to Los Angeles’s carbon footprint and worsening public health.

Communities adjacent to freeways are impacted the most, predominantly being low-income minority communities such as Boyle Heights and Wilmington in LA where Researchers Michael Gochfeld and Joanna Burger in the American Public Health Association observed that those who face elevated levels of these pollutants resulted in higher rates of asthma and long-term health burdens (Gochfeld and Burger). Low-density zoning ordinances have contributed to an urban sprawl that has displaced green spaces, intensifying the urban heat island effect and increasing infrastructure costs. The urban heat island effect occurs when developed areas experience higher temperatures than nearby areas due to extensive paved surfaces and limited green cover. On average, this results in temperatures being seven degrees Fahrenheit hotter than surrounding areas (U.S Environmental Protection Agency). Unshaded roads and buildings gain heat during the day, radiating that heat into the surrounding air, in turn driving electricity demand and further contributing to greenhouse gas emissions (National Integrated Heat Health Information System). However, in areas like East and South Los Angeles, with older and uncooled homes, the lack of green spaces and vegetation amidst the extensive paved surfaces puts elderly and low-income residents at greater risk of heat-related illnesses.

Zoning laws also shape access to critical resources like grocery stores to provide food security. Rigid policies prioritizing single-family dwellings have placed 40% of South and more than half of East Los Angelenos in a food desert where residents live more than half a mile from a full-service grocery store (Haye et. al 3). USC Relations Director Illeana Wachtel found that zoning-induced food deserts disproportionately affect low-income and minority communities, increasing long-term health-related issues like diabetes and obesity (Wachtel). Residents who reside in a food desert often have to travel greater distances, often by car, to access healthy food options, as they are inaccessible for low-income households without reliable transportation.

When one is placed out of convenient distance from a full-service grocery store, one becomes increasingly reliant on convenience stores or fast food chains, which typically offer more calorie-dense and processed foods with low nutritional value (Allcott et. al. 9-10). Such environments put individuals at higher risk for chronic diseases like obesity, type two diabetes, and heart disease due to limited access to healthy foods (U.S Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). This imbalance is a direct consequence of zoning policies that restrict commercial development within residential areas. Adults who experience food insecurity are two to three times more likely to suffer from diet-related illnesses, which have broader implications beyond one's health due to increasing medical expenses, reduced productivity, and hindered economic mobility within marginalized communities (U.S Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Children who live in food-insecure homes also face academic and developmental challenges, which perpetuate the cycle of poverty, where 56% of parents with young children struggle with food insecurity (Los Angeles Regional Food Bank). Research Director John Cook at the Center of Hunger found that child hunger resulted in increased health costs for families and employers, contributing to economic burdens on families and communities that suffer from food insecurity, including developmental problems in a child who lacks proper nutrition (Cook). Increased long-term health costs and educational and developmental difficulties continue to trap generations in cycles of poverty, restricting them from opportunities.

Resistance, Reform, and the Future of Zoning

As studied by Christopher Serkin, Professor of Law at Vanderbilt University, proponents of restrictive zoning ordinances argue that such regulations preserve neighborhood character, protect property values, and maintain community stability (Serkin). However, Cato Institute Historian Johan Norberg argues that this perspective is rooted in a romanticized vision of the past, a phenomenon Johan Norberg describes in his article “False Nostalgia.”  He states that many people cling to an idealized version of history that never existed, perpetuating systematic inequalities and hindering progress (Norberg 1). He highlights how romanticized perspectives of the past may obstruct necessary reforms for our modern society. Resistance rooted in nostalgia is evident in challenging potential reforms addressing environmental and equitable urban challenges. 

For example, Senate Bill 10 provides the tools for local governments to upzone parcels near transit-rich areas for up to ten residential units (SB 10). Upzoning (increasing development) land near transit-rich areas allows for the promotion of higher-density developments in urban cores which saw a significant decline in residential growth post World War II as many families relocated to suburbs, a trend fueled by federal housing policies, rising car ownership, and the expansion of highway systems (Lesh 2). Despite the potential to alleviate housing shortages and reduce urban sprawl through infilling, SB 10 encountered resistance rooted in fears of disrupting community aesthetics by Nymbys, who yearn to “preserve” the aesthetic of postwar suburbia, which is a powerful psychological and political force that obstructs necessary reform (Kinder).

The Norberg phenomenon is especially relevant to zoning regulations and reform resistance with NIMBYistic groups. Norberg describes how false nostalgia “is easily abused by [those] who claim they can restore… that [which] has been lost”. He notes that even if we could go back, we wouldn’t find what we were looking for (Norberg 10). Norberg’s analysis aligns with Los Angeles Nymbies who defend exclusionary zoning policies, invoking an imagery of a stable and family-friendly community while ignoring the discriminatory segregation and environmentally unsustainable origins of zoning ordinances.

Similarly, California’s recent Senate Bill 9 (SB 9) known as the California Housing Opportunity and More Efficiency (HOME) Act allows homeowners to build up to four housing units on a single-family-sized lot (California Legislative Information). Senate Bill 9 aims at increasing housing supply and the affordability of homes in Los Angeles in the wake of mass housing shortages contributing to skyrocketing rent and home prices; however, the legislation faced criticism from those who were concerned about altering the traditional single family home community structure. 

Although known as a step towards equitable and sustainable growth, both SB9 and SB10 have faced opposition from those clinging to outdated notions of neighborhood aesthetics and communities, where a study of thirteen major California cities from San Diego to San Francisco by David Garcia, Policy Director at UC Berkeley, saw minimal or non-existent activity, with Los Angeles showcasing the most, but minimal overall activity (Garcia). As Norbeg stated, “false nostalgia blinds us to the true conditions and realities of the past and the present.” Without confronting these nostalgic false narratives, progress on urban sustainability, housing affordability, and inclusion will only continue to stall. 

Conclusion

Zoning lines are not just lines drawn on a map; they are powerful tools that shape urban environments, economic equity, and social landscapes, altering how people live their lives in metropolitan urban centers (Schindler). In Los Angeles, restrictive single-family zoning ordinances have played a significant role in deepening inequality, worsening climate issues, and isolating low-income and marginalized communities from opportunities. Although originally created to protect the health of citizens from industrial activities, restrictive zoning ordinances have only done the opposite for non-privileged individuals, becoming a modern barrier to sustainable and equitable urban life. As explored through Los Angeles’ zoning history, sprawling development patterns, and current resistance, these laws reflect outdated values justified by nostalgic ideals in John Norberg’s concept of “false nostalgia”; being a reminder of romanticized pasts that people cling to that was never equitable to begin with, reinforcing the segregation systems of communities across Los Angeles. California’s SB 9 and SB 10 offer a framework for zoning reform that prioritizes density, sustainability, and inclusion, but real change requires a cultural shift. If Los Angeles is to lead into an environmentally sustainable future, it must reform its exclusionary ideals and embrace zoning reform for a more vibrant future for all Angelenos, not just a select privileged few. 

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