Introduction/Background Racial inequality and segregation have been omnipresent within the US since its founding. The ratification of the 14th Amendment, passed following the Union victory in the Civil War, established the equal protection clause, ensuring the equal treatment of all citizens.

While the Civil Rights Amendments were considered a massive stride for the Civil Rights Movement, they were by no means the nostrum. The infamous Supreme Court Case of Plessy v Ferguson (1896) established the "separate but equal" clause, legalizing segregated educational and public facilities on the basis of race. This ruling led to an era of Jim Crow laws in the South, characterized by enforced racial segregation and discriminatory practices.

The landmark ruling of Brown v Board of Education(1954) effectively overturned Plessy v Ferguson, determining that segregated educational facilities were inherently unequal, and thus violated the equal protection clause. This ruling was met with much resistance- especially from Southern states-with some cases even requiring federal troops to intervene to ensure the integration of public schools. Over time, and with further legislation and regulations- such as more extensive busing programs, Supreme Court cases like Green v. County School Board, and legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964- public schools were further integrated throughout the 1970s and 1980s. However, since the late 80's, segregation between White and Black students has been steadily rising, increasing by approximately 64 percent.

So, what is the cause of this regression? How do segregated schools impact educational oppurtunites? And most importantly, what policies can be implemented to best combat these disparities?

Disparities Today Today, while schools aren't deliberately separated based on demographic factors- such as race, ethnicity, or religion- they are by no means equal. Recent studies have revealed that approximately 60% of Black and Hispanic public school students attend schools where 75% or more of students are students of color, while nearly half of White public school students attend a school in which White students comprise 75% or more of the student body. Several factors may contribute to this school segregation, including residential segregation, the lack of regulation and legislation promoting the integration of schools, the way in which school district boundaries are drawn, and school choice programs (such as magnet schools), which tend to favor more affluent applicants.

This “de facto” segregation- segregation not stemming from laws, but rather from other circumstances- has been putting minority students, and specifically Black and Hispanic students,

at a significant disadvantage. Majority Black and Hispanic schools tend to be located in underfunded areas, with schools with 90 percent or more students of color spending an average of $733 less per student per year than schools with 90 percent or more white students. This lack of funding translates into less experienced teachers and limited resources, leading to lower test scores, grades, and an overall decline in educational opportunities and success. Hence, the positive feedback loop persists, with the gap between students of color and white students continuing to widen. It is evident that school segregation is a major contributor to racial academic achievement gaps, as a strong educational foundation is the key to success in college, vocational opportunities, and higher wages.

Racially diverse schools are not only important for ensuring equality of opportunity in education, but also for fostering cross-racial friendships and relationships, creating a new generation of more accepting and open-minded individuals. On the flip side, students attending segregated schools may experience lowered self-esteem and isolation, further exacerbating achievement gaps.

Solutions So, what’s the solution to addressing these severe educational discrepancies? As students are assigned to public schools based on their residential address, residential and school segregation are in many cases directly correlated. Therefore, the way in which district boundaries are drawn can be instrumental in both ameliorating and exacerbating school integration. Furthermore, policies aimed at diversifying neighborhoods can result in more diverse schools. For example, inclusionary zoning policies encourage or mandate a certain percentage of new housing to be affordable for lower-income families, reducing racial segregation within neighborhoods.

Moreover, local and state-level legislation can be highly valuable in promoting diversity and equality within schools. An example of a successful state-level program is METCO (Metropolitan Council for Educational Opportunity), which aims to promote voluntary desegregation and diversity within Massachusetts schools. The program provides students of color (mostly residing in urban areas) with the opportunity to attend suburban public schools, which are typically more funded and academically rigorous. The program also provides students with free transportation to these schools. Recent studies have revealed that on average, students of color participating in the METCO program have higher test scores, graduation rates, and college enrollment compared to their city student counterparts. Through implementing similar programs within other states and school districts, a more even playing field can be created.

In addition, while education-related policy-making is typically within state government discretion and authority, some federal government intervention may be necessary to ensure that states are staying on par. For example, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)- signed under

Obama's presidency in 2015- aims to regulate and evaluate state education laws and practices through different measures, including compulsory standardized tests for students and increased support and funding for students attending underperforming schools.

Of course, promoting diversity within schools themselves is vital for creating an atmosphere of respect and understanding, both within students and faculty. Through implementing cultural competency programs within schools, greater diversity, equity, and inclusion can be promoted, leading to a more just education.

Conclusion America is renowned worldwide for its pillars of democracy, its plethora of opportunities, and most prominently, its equality. While the US has come a long way since the mid-20th century, the fight for equality- and specifically equality within public education faculties- is far from over. While education is the gateway to success, the quality of education varies greatly among students, and is especially lower for minority students and students of color. Through implementing key policies and programs- both within school, state, and national levels- further equality can be attained for all students, regardless of their race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status.

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