I. Introduction

    Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing global challenges of our time. The impacts of climate change are unevenly felt, disproportionately affecting low-emission regions like Africa. The continent contributes minimally to global emissions: for instance, the average person in Mali or Niger emits as much in a year as an American or Australian does in just 2 to 3 days. Despite this low level of emissions, African populations face significant vulnerabilities that put them at severe risk. Such disparities raise questions about equity and justice in international climate policy. For this reason, there’s a need for a focused examination of how existing frameworks address—or fail to address—the needs of those most affected.

    The current situation is concerning. Low-emission countries are experiencing increasingly frequent and intense extreme weather events, diminishing agricultural productivity, and heightened food insecurity. For example, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reports that between 1970 and 2021, Africa accounted for 35% of weather, climate, and water-related fatalities. Alarmingly, only 40% of the African population has access to early warning systems—the lowest rate of any region worldwide. Moreover, Africa lacks the financial and technological resources necessary to effectively adapt to climate change. While developed countries can implement advanced disaster response systems and invest in infrastructure, low-emission countries (the majority developing countries) often find themselves struggling to cope with the aftermath of climate disasters.

    Historically, developing countries have contributed very little to global emissions. Yet, as the effects of climate change intensify, these nations are being forced into a challenging trade-off between economic growth and environmental sustainability. The availability of fossil fuel resources in regions like Africa presents a double-edged sword. While these resources could drive economic development, the pressure from international organizations to transition to cleaner energy often feels like an imposition rather than a choice. Consequently, this creates a conflict between the need for immediate economic gains and long-term climate commitments.

    The implications of these dynamics are worsened by the failure of developed countries to meet their climate pledges, particularly regarding financial support and emissions reductions. Such a shortfall weakens global efforts to combat climate change and perpetuates the cycle of vulnerability faced by African countries. For example, during the 15th Conference of Parties (COP15) of the UNFCCC in 2009, developed countries committed to providing $100 billion annually by 2020 to support those least responsible for and most affected by climate change. However, this goal was only met in 2022. The lack of penalties for failing to comply with these commitments worsens the situation. Weak accountability measures allow developed countries to ignore their responsibilities without facing significant consequences.

    In this paper, I aim to explore the disproportionate burdens that African countries face regarding climate change and adaptation costs. I will critique some of the existing international policies that often favor industrialized nations and inadequately address the specific needs of vulnerable populations in the Global South. The objective is to propose recommendations that enhance climate finance mechanisms and ensure stronger representation for Africa in global discussions.

    In the subsequent sections, I will provide further context to the discussion and clearly point out the challenges within international climate policies that specifically affect African countries. I will then conduct a policy analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of grants, loans, and carbon markets as instruments for international climate finance, examining their shortcomings in addressing the needs of African countries vulnerable to climate change impacts. The discussion will then transition to specific recommendations aimed at enhancing these financial mechanisms and ensuring better representation for African countries in global climate dialogues. I will conclude by synthesizing my findings.

II. Context and Problem Definition

    The data reveals a significant disparity in carbon emissions between industrialized nations and developing countries. The majority of carbon emissions originate from industrialized nations, with the Global North contributing disproportionately higher emissions per capita compared to the Global South. Analyzing emissions on a per capita basis is crucial in understanding this disparity, as it accounts for population size. Countries with larger populations, like India and China, tend to have higher overall emissions simply due to the scale of their economies and populations. However, when we examine emissions per capita, a stark difference emerges. For instance, while India ranks among the top global emitters, its per capita emissions are significantly lower than those of many wealthier nations. The same is true for China, the world’s largest emitter by total CO₂. Despite this, China’s per capita emissions are still lower than those of the United States, which has a much smaller population. In contrast, per capita emissions in Global North countries—such as the United States, Canada, and much of Europe—are much higher, even though their populations are significantly smaller.

Nonetheless, as the maps below (Figures 1 and 2) illustrate, CO₂ emissions in Africa are generally lower compared to other regions of the world. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), South Africa stands out as the primary emitter, reflecting its more industrialized economy and greater energy demands. Aside from South Africa, Figure 2 shows that only a few countries in SSA, such as Gabon and Botswana, display darker shades, indicating relatively higher per capita emissions. This can be attributed to their relatively small populations. Despite their high per capita emissions, the total emissions from Gabon and Botswana are low compared to countries from other parts of the world.

Economic Activity vs. Emissions

    Developing countries, particularly in Africa, are often caught in a dilemma: the need for economic development to improve the living standards of their populations and the imperative to reduce emissions.  The tension arises from the recognition that economic growth is essential for lifting millions out of poverty, yet such growth often leads to increased emissions. An Africa Policy Research Institute (APRI) report of 2022 revealed that the top ten developed economies, responsible for 75% of global GDP, emit two-thirds of annual GHGs. Questions about climate justice and fairness arise with these results as they show the inequity in how the burden of climate change is shared.

    Moreover, renewable energy is currently being pushed as an opportunity for Africa to achieve sustainable development while driving economic growth and reducing emissions. With a significant portion of the population lacking access to electricity, off-grid renewable solutions can provide clean energy to rural areas and enhance their quality of life. Additionally, as African countries shift towards renewables, they can substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, it's crucial to ensure that Africa is not merely viewed as a market for renewable technologies and a source of cheap critical minerals. According to Claar (2022), a new development path emerges that creates markets for investments and capital accumulation, primarily benefiting Western companies. This situation raises concerns about "green colonialism.” Green colonialism occurs when there’s exploitation of the Global South by developed countries in the Global North under the guise of environmental sustainability. As a result, the Global South bears the social and environmental costs of climate solutions, while wealthier nations continue to gain economically, further deepening the unequal climate burden.

Vulnerability to Climate Change

    Africa is increasingly impacted by the growing frequency and severity of weather and climate extremes. This heightened vulnerability is evident in the data presented in Figure 3, which illustrates the hazards of greatest concern for the continent based on Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) from 53 countries. The results show that floods are a significant concern for 48 countries, followed by droughts (40 countries), rising temperatures (39 countries), and changes in precipitation patterns (38 countries).

The impacts of these hazards reach far beyond immediate effects. As Africa depends heavily on agriculture, this poses serious risks to agricultural production, export potential, and overall economic growth, consequently impacting household welfare (Odjo et al., 2023). Food security is under serious threat, with an estimated 713 to 757 million people facing hunger globally in 2023—about one in five individuals in Africa (FAO et al., 2024). It is important to notice that climate change jeopardizes the entire food system. It affects everything from production and processing to storage, transportation, and consumption. Building resilience across these interconnected components is essential for ensuring that people have access to healthy and adequate food (Adenle et al., 2017). Without a strong and adaptable food system, millions may struggle increasingly to meet their nutritional needs. A lack of support in this area would worsen poverty and vulnerability across the continent.

    Infrastructure is also vulnerable to climate-related events. East, West, and Central Africa are projected to experience the highest annual damages to road and rail assets relative to their GDP. A deterioration of infrastructure would further complicate the situation, as many rural communities rely on roads for connectivity. Unfortunately, much of this road network is unpaved and poorly maintained, which isolates communities and limits access to essential services such as education and healthcare (Trisos et al., 2022; Ngezahayo et al., 2019). Additionally, many African countries rely on informal transportation methods (Ajayi et al., 2021). Most urban poor live in informal settlements and depend heavily on natural systems to meet their basic needs, particularly in peri-urban areas (Hommann & Lall, 2019).

Climate Finance for Africa

    There’s a need for robust funding mechanisms for the world's most vulnerable countries. While the Global North—home to the largest emitters of greenhouse gases—faces its own climate challenges, it generally has more resources to adapt. In contrast, many nations in Africa struggle with inadequate infrastructure, limited access to technology, and high poverty rates. These issues make it difficult for them to effectively respond to the impacts of climate change.

    The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, aims to unite countries in the fight against climate change. One of its key elements is Article 9, which emphasizes the need for financial support for developing countries. This article recognizes that financial resources are essential for nations facing the brunt of climate impacts. The rationale behind this is simple: those countries that contribute the least to the problem often suffer the most from its effects. Climate finance is crucial for helping these nations adapt and build resilience against climate-related challenges.

    According to a report by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), climate adaptation in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to cost between US$ 30 billion and US$ 50 billion annually over the next decade. This represents 2% to 3% of the region's GDP. Without better funding mechanisms, many initiatives aimed at adaptation and resilience-building will struggle to take off. It is essential to develop and implement financial strategies that can effectively support these efforts.

    The global commitment to mobilize US$100 billion annually for climate finance was established at the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP15) of the UNFCCC in Copenhagen in 2009. The goal was to provide this amount to developing countries each year by 2020. However, this promise has faced significant challenges. While the target was originally set for 2020, it was not fully met until 2022—two years past the deadline. Although the commitment was finally met, the slow pace raises concerns about the reliability of future financial support.

III. Policy Analysis

    International climate policies are designed to facilitate cooperation among nations in addressing the challenges posed by climate change. These policies aim to establish frameworks for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing climate resilience, and providing financial support to developing countries.

    One key aspect of these policies is climate finance, which provides crucial funding for adaptation and mitigation projects. The goal is to help countries build resilience against climate impacts, transition to low-carbon economies, and meet their commitments under international agreements. For many African countries, accessing this finance is vital for implementing climate strategies.

    However, challenges complicate this process. Despite the intent behind international climate policies, the allocation of climate finance is often uneven, with many African countries receiving inadequate support. Many African countries face limited fiscal space and high costs related to climate change that lead them to seek external financing and support from global partners. Although grants would be the most effective solution, many countries end up taking on debt to fund their climate initiatives (see Figure 4). This reliance on borrowing can create additional financial strain and hinder the overall effectiveness of Africa’s climate actions.

Loans

    Loans are often provided by international financial institutions and allow countries to invest in necessary adaptations to climate change while managing their financial burdens. However, the potential for debt accumulation and the emphasis on repayment can lead to short-term thinking, prioritizing projects with quicker returns at the expense of long-term sustainability.

Grants

    Grants play a pivotal role in international climate finance, particularly in developing regions like Africa, where access to traditional funding sources can be limited. These funds are provided to support climate initiatives without the expectation of repayment.

Carbon markets are currently promoted as a solution to climate change by allowing countries and companies to buy and sell carbon credits, essentially trading the right to emit carbon dioxide.  The idea is that entities that can reduce emissions at a lower cost can sell their excess reductions as credits to those facing higher costs. This mechanism is designed to create financial incentives for reducing greenhouse gas emissions while fostering investment in green technologies. However, this approach is not a long-term solution and may not be viable for Africa.

    One significant ethical consideration surrounding carbon markets is the valuation of nature and the commodification of ecosystems. When carbon offsets are created, they often assign a monetary value to natural resources, which can overlook their intrinsic ecological and cultural importance. This commodification can lead to negative consequences for local communities, particularly indigenous populations. There have been cases where projects aimed at generating carbon credits have resulted in the displacement of native populations, forcing them to abandon their traditional lands and change their livelihoods. These communities may lose access to vital resources such as water, forests, and agricultural land, leading to social and economic upheaval.

IV. Recommendations

    Addressing the disproportionate impacts of climate change in Africa requires policy recommendations that focus on both immediate needs and long-term sustainability. This section outlines some key strategies for the region.

Policies for Current Disasters

The increasing frequency and intensity of climate-related disasters in Africa demand immediate financial support for disaster response and recovery. Current policies must prioritize the allocation of funds to affected regions. Emergency response frameworks should be established to expedite funding access and allow for timely interventions that can mitigate the impacts of disasters. Relying on loans with high interest rates is not a viable solution for developing countries because many are already burdened by significant debt. For instance, in 2023, African countries faced external debt payments amounting to $85 billion, which is almost triple the amount they received for climate adaptation.

    Interest rates on loans are often closely linked to a country's credit rating, which reflects its financial stability and ability to repay debts. Countries with higher credit ratings typically benefit from lower interest rates, as lenders see them as less risky. Conversely, countries with low credit ratings often face perceptions of higher default risk, which leads to increased borrowing costs, as investors seek higher returns to offset that risk.

    To address this imbalance, it is essential for international financial institutions to reevaluate their criteria for assessing credit risk in developing countries. These institutions should adopt more flexible methodologies that consider the unique challenges faced by African nations. Additionally, concerns have been raised about potential conflicts of interest, as these agencies often operate with a lack of accountability and may not fully account for the socio-economic realities of developing nations. Stakeholders—including governments, civil society, and the private sector—must advocate for reforms that enhance transparency and ensure that rating assessments are based on comprehensive and equitable criteria.

South-South Collaboration

Collaboration between African nations and the Global South is crucial in amplifying their voices on the global stage. The Global North is responsible for 92% of all excess global carbon dioxide emissions. This statistic shows the moral imperative for developed nations to support developing countries in their climate adaptation efforts. Together, they can better position themselves to secure the resources necessary for disaster management and recovery.

Such collaboration enables the Global South to present a unified front in international forums and enhance its influence. When their interests are at stake, their combined efforts can more effectively articulate their concerns and apply pressure when needed.

However, there are constraints to effective collaboration, such as differing national priorities and economic disparities — some countries in the Global South are relatively more developed than many African nations. To overcome these challenges, it is essential to foster open dialogue and build trust among countries and regions. Establishing common goals and frameworks for collaboration can help align interests and facilitate cooperation.

Policies for Mitigation and Climate-Resilient Infrastructure

    In addition to immediate disaster response funding, there is a pressing need for long-term investment in climate resilience and mitigation infrastructure across Africa. Governments must develop and implement proactive policies that enhance the capacity of communities not only to recover from climate shocks but also to prevent and mitigate their impacts. This can be achieved through investments in sustainable infrastructure projects, such as flood defenses, drought-resistant agricultural systems, and renewable energy sources that provide reliable power during extreme weather events.

Fair Pricing for Critical Minerals

    As the global demand for minerals essential for the energy transition increases, Africa must ensure that these resources are sourced responsibly and priced fairly. Governments should demand the establishment of frameworks that guarantee equitable compensation for mineral extraction. Doing so will not only ensure that local communities benefit from their natural resources but can also help address historical injustices associated with extractive industries, providing funding for local development projects and social infrastructure. Moreover, by promoting fair compensation and using sustainable practices when exploring, African nations can create a strong incentive for both local communities and governments to abandon fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy sources, which would align economic interests with climate goals.

    Furthermore, collaboration among African countries is essential to negotiate better terms with international corporations involved in mineral extraction. A collective bargaining power will not only improve economic outcomes but also enhance the overall resilience of the region in the face of climate change. This is not an easy task as international corporations will probably resist in order to protect their profits and secure favorable contracts. However, cooperation among African countries and the broader Global South plays a crucial role, strengthening their ability to negotiate more effectively.

Support for Accelerated Transitions

    Supporting a swift transition to renewable energy sources is critical for both mitigating climate change and fostering sustainable development in Africa. Development agencies, investors, and African governments should prioritize investments in renewable energy infrastructure, such as solar, wind, and hydropower projects. These initiatives can provide clean energy access to communities that currently rely on fossil fuels. This is especially important in rural areas, where extending the national grid is costly due to the sparse population.

    Addressing energy poverty is essential as the world shifts to cleaner energy forms. By investing in decentralized renewable energy solutions—such as off-grid solar systems—African nations can ensure that rural communities gain access to reliable energy sources. Initiating this transition soon will help Africa avoid falling behind in the global energy landscape and position itself as a player in renewable energy.

    However, it is crucial that investments from international partners do not merely aim to establish Africa as a market for their renewable energy technologies. Instead, these investments should empower African countries to develop their own capabilities and industries. This means fostering local innovation, technology transfer, and workforce development to ensure that African countries can harness their renewable energy potential independently. Governments must also ensure that the transition is just and address any socio-economic impacts that may arise.

Ending Extractivist Exploration Models

    To achieve sustainable development, it is vital to move away from extractivist exploration models for critical minerals that prioritize short-term profits over long-term sustainability. African governments should implement regulations that promote responsible mining practices, emphasizing environmental protection and community rights. Africa cannot simply remain a provider of raw materials; it must also develop its own value-added industries. This approach will help retain economic benefits within the continent and reduce reliance on imported end products.

    According to UNCTAD, demand for critical energy transition minerals like lithium, cobalt, and copper could increase almost fourfold by 2030. While many developing countries possess significant reserves of these minerals, they often lack the processing capabilities needed to add value. This dependency on commodity exports affects 83% of least developed countries and 85% of landlocked developing countries. Without proper regulation and investment in local industries, much of this wealth could be extracted and exported without benefiting the local economies.

    Constraints to this transition include entrenched interests from multinational corporations that may resist regulatory changes, as well as the lack of political will in some African governments to challenge these established models. Additionally, there may be challenges in capacity building for local industries and the need for substantial initial investment in sustainable practices.

IV. Implementation Strategy

    The recommendations presented in this strategy are critical for addressing the disproportionate impacts of climate change in Africa. However, they cannot be implemented without a fundamental shift in recognition. It is essential to acknowledge the current situation—where African nations are disproportionately affected by climate change yet often sidelined in global discussions. Recognizing these realities is the first step toward effective action. Without this recognition, climate policies will remain inadequate and may perpetuate existing inequalities.

    Moreover, for African countries to advocate effectively on the international stage, they must first prioritize their individual needs. Once these national priorities are set, African nations, alongside the rest of the Global South, should come together to present a unified and strategic voice in international climate negotiations. Solidarity within the Global South—spanning Africa, Asia, Latin America, and small island states—will strengthen the collective ability to challenge global power dynamics and push for policies that address shared vulnerabilities and development needs. A fragmented approach would weaken their bargaining power and undermine their ability to secure the necessary resources and commitments from the Global North.

    In addition to the efforts within the Global South, it is essential to highlight the role and obligations of the Global North in this implementation strategy. The Global North, having contributed the most to historical emissions, bears a significant responsibility in addressing the climate crisis. Financial mechanisms should prioritize grants, not loans, to ensure that developing countries are not further burdened by debt. These funds must be directed primarily toward supporting both adaptation and mitigation efforts in vulnerable regions.

    The Global North must also be held accountable for its pledges to reduce emissions and meet international climate targets. Failure to meet these commitments not only undermines the global climate agenda but also intensifies the challenges faced by the Global South. Clear accountability mechanisms should be established to ensure compliance, with consequences for non-compliance, whether through diplomatic pressure or economic measures. Without such accountability, pledges made by the Global North will remain ineffective.